1. Seven Countries Claimed Parts of Antarctica as Their Territory
Seven countries claimed parts of Antarctica as their national territory. These were the United Kingdom, Norway, France, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and Argentina [5]. The areas they claimed overlapped with one another [5].
Some countries, like Japan, did not make any territorial claims at all. Because of these different positions, it is not accurate to say that Antarctica belongs to no one. The question remains: how did countries with such different views create a single set of rules? The answer lies in events that happened just before the treaty was signed.
2. The International Geophysical Year: Scientists From Many Countries Work in Antarctica
From 1957 to 1958, the world held the International Geophysical Year. This was a global scientific observation campaign. Many countries sent scientists to Antarctica to work together [1]. Continuing this scientific cooperation became one of the main goals of the future treaty [1].
Japan also joined this effort. The government decided to send the first Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition. They opened Showa Base in 1957 [6]. Even though countries had different political positions, they became partners observing the same ice and sky. This relationship of cooperation existed before any conflict could start. It is an important background to the story of the treaty.
3. The 1959 Antarctic Treaty Freezes Territorial Claims
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on December 1, 1959. It officially went into effect in 1961 [1]. There was a gap between signing and becoming law. The heart of the treaty is Article 4. It states that countries do not have to give up their previous territorial claims. However, activities carried out while the treaty is in force cannot be used as evidence to support those claims [4].
Countries also agree not to make new claims or expand existing ones [4]. This is called "freezing" the claims. The claims did not disappear; they were put on a shelf. This system allowed both countries that claim land and those that do not to keep their positions without losing face [5].
4. The Treaty's Rules: Peaceful Use, Science, and Mutual Inspections
Article 1 of the treaty says Antarctica must be used only for peaceful purposes. Building military bases, fortifications, or testing weapons is forbidden [2]. However, military personnel and equipment can be used for scientific research or other peaceful purposes [2]. This means military people are not completely absent, but their use is restricted to these allowed activities.
Articles 2 and 3 allow free scientific investigation. Countries must share plans, personnel, and observation results so that everyone can use them [1]. Nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste are also prohibited [7].
Article 7 introduces a unique system. Monitors designated by each country can enter any area or base in Antarctica at any time [2]. Ships and aircraft are also subject to inspection if they are loading or unloading people or cargo in Antarctica [2]. By showing each other what they are doing, countries can confirm that the promises are being kept.
5. The 1991 Madrid Protocol: Protecting Antarctica's Environment
On October 4, 1991, the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty" was adopted in Madrid. It went into effect in 1998 [3]. This protocol designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. Activities related to mineral resources are banned, except for scientific research [3].
Japan prepared its domestic laws in 1997, and the protocol took effect in Japan on January 14, 1998 [8]. You might hear that mining will be allowed in 2048. This is a misunderstanding. The protocol does not expire in 2048. Instead, from 2048 onwards, consultative parties can request a review meeting [3].
6. How to Find the Area the Antarctic Treaty Covers on a Map
What can you do today? Look at a map or globe. Find the line of 60 degrees south latitude. The treaty applies to all areas south of this line [4].
If you want to visit a place, check if science centers or museums have exhibitions about Antarctica. You can check their websites beforehand. For official information, the National Institute of Polar Science website describes observations from Showa Base [6]. According to the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, there are 58 countries that are parties to the treaty as of 2026 [1].