1. What Was the Columbian Exchange Between the Old World and the New World?
Until the end of the 15th century, Europe and Africa (the Old World) and the Americas (the New World) were separated by the ocean. Each region grew its own crops and raised its own livestock. After 1492, ships began to travel back and forth, and plants, animals, and diseases started crossing the Atlantic. This movement is called the "Columbian Exchange." The term was coined by historian Alfred W. Crosby in 1972, though Columbus himself did not use this phrase [1].
Crosby noted in an interview that most crops belonged to only one side of the ocean before they crossed it. He also stated that horses, cows, sheep, and goats originated in the Old World [2]. So, what actually crossed the ocean? We will look at the items that traveled from the New World to the Old World first.
2. Which Livestock and Wheat Crossed From the Old World to the Americas?
Before Europeans arrived, the Americas had no horses, cows, or pigs; chickens were also brought from Europe. These animals were brought to the New World for food and transportation during Columbus's second voyage (1493–1496) [1].
Spanish people are said to have first brought wheat, olives, and grapes. Sugarcane also spread later. The appearance of fields and dining tables changed little by little through this exchange. It was not just cargo that crossed the Atlantic; diseases also traveled and had a major impact on daily life. This article focuses on food, so we will move on to the story of crops.
3. How Did the Potato Go From a Decorative Plant to a Food Crop?
The potato is believed to have originated in high-altitude regions extending from the Andes Mountains to Mexico, at elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 meters (about 9,800 to 13,100 feet) [3].
In Europe, it is said that Spanish people brought potatoes back during their expeditions to the Inca Empire at the end of the 16th century. However, sources vary on whether this happened in the middle or end of the century. Initially, potatoes were grown as ornamental plants, not for eating. They became a major crop only in the late 18th century [3].
In Japan, it is said that Dutch people based in Jakarta (then called Jagatara) brought potatoes to Nagasaki during the Keicho era (around 1600). One theory suggests that the Japanese name "jagaimo" comes from "Jagatara" [3]. Research by economists Nathan Nunn and Nancy Qian reports that the introduction of the potato explains a significant part of population growth and urbanization in the Old World during the 18th and 19th centuries [4]. A plant once admired for its flowers may have later supported people's lives.
4. How Did Tomato Sauce Come to Be Used on Pasta?
The tomato is a plant in the nightshade family, believed to have been born in the same Andean highlands as the potato. It spread to the Mexican plateau and became a cultivated crop of the Aztec people [5].
It is said that when a Spanish ship entered the port of Naples in 1554, tomato seeds were on board. By the end of the 17th century, a high-ranking clergyman in Naples named Latini created a recipe for "Spanish-style tomato sauce," establishing the combination of pasta and tomato sauce [5]. These stories include legends, and the dates and names rely on a single source. It shows that the standard Italian flavor is surprisingly new.
In Japan, tomatoes are said to have arrived as ornamental plants around the early 18th century. They became widespread as food after American varieties were introduced in the 20th century [6].
5. Why Were Chili Peppers Used as a Substitute for Black Pepper?
Chili peppers also originated in the Americas. They were among the unknown plants seen by Spanish people during the first voyage in 1492 [7].
They attracted attention as a spice to replace black pepper and were brought back to Spain during the second voyage in 1493. This is considered the first time chili peppers became known in Europe [7].
The arrival of chili peppers in Japan is said to have occurred between the Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods in the 16th century. A strong theory places this in the 15th or 16th century. There are multiple theories, including one linking it to the introduction of guns in 1543, missionaries presenting seeds to Otomo Yoshishige around 1552, and the Korean invasions in the late 16th century. There is no established consensus on the exact origin [8].
6. How Did Corn Travel From Mexico to Japanese Fields?
Corn (maize) is reported to derive from a single domestication event that took place about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico. Its wild relative is a plant called balsas teosinte [9].
In Japan, it is said that Portuguese people introduced corn to Nagasaki in the 7th year of the Tensho era (1579) [10]. There are other theories about the year of introduction, but full-scale cultivation is said to have spread after the Meiji era, following the import of good varieties from America. Tomatoes, chili peppers, and potatoes all look like things that have "always been there" in Japan. Yet, these crops crossed the ocean and joined our tables over the past five centuries.
7. How Can You Investigate New World Ingredients in Your Own Dinner?
Write down the ingredients of your dinner tonight. Circle the items that originated in the New World, such as potatoes, tomatoes, chili peppers, corn, peanuts, and cacao [1]. Your meal may include many or just a few of these ingredients.
In libraries, look for shelves on the history of food or agricultural crops. If you find crops where the year of introduction differs from book to book, thinking about the reasons for this difference is a good entry point for research. Also, look at the ingredient labels on snack bags. You might find names of New World crops like corn, potatoes, and cacao.