1. How Many Bones Are in Your Toes?
If you count the bones in one foot, there are 14. In both feet, that makes 28. The second through fifth toes are each made of 3 bones: the proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. However, the big toe is different. It has only 2 bones—the proximal and distal phalanges—and lacks the middle bone found in the other toes [1].
Although the big toe has one fewer bone, it is thought to play a key role in the movement that pushes the foot off the ground. The functions of the toes can be divided into three main areas: pushing off the ground, controlling body sway, and possibly relating to how toe length affects running. Let’s start by looking at the push-off phase.
2. Do Toes Work Like a Winch to Make the Foot Rigid When Walking?
When walking, if the toes bend backward, the plantar fascia (a band of tissue on the sole of the foot) is pulled tight, making the foot rigid and easier to push against the ground. This is explained by a model called the "windlass mechanism," named after a machine used to hoist heavy loads. Japanese research suggests this mechanism is one of the foot's functions that generates propulsion during the push-off phase of walking, playing an important role in efficient walking [2].
A study investigated whether this mechanism works the same way when walking and running. Nine healthy adult men were asked to walk and run on a treadmill. Researchers compared the maximum angle of big toe extension. The results showed that during walking, the angle was about 39.9 degrees, while during running, it was about 32.9 degrees. The angle was significantly smaller when running [2].
The difference is about 7 degrees. Researchers thought that the role of this mechanism might be limited during running. However, this was a small study of only 9 people. It is not evidence to say definitively that "the windlass mechanism does not work when running." So, does this "winch" explanation always apply?
3. Does Bending the Toes Really Make the Foot Rigid While Walking?
The model stating that "bending the toes raises the arch and makes the foot rigid" is based on Hicks' research from 1954. This explanation fits well for static positions, such as sitting or standing.
A 2021 study using 3D motion analysis showed that when sitting and standing, raising the arch immediately followed bending the toes. However, during walking, even though the toes began to bend at the push-off phase, the height of the arch decreased. This study reported that measurements taken in static positions do not accurately predict movement during walking [3].
It is important to note that this does not mean "the windlass mechanism was wrong." Rather, it points out that the way the arch moves in a static position and in a walking foot may not be the same. There is still room for research into what happens inside the foot while walking.
4. How Is Toe Grip Strength Related to Balance?
The force used to grip objects with the toes is called "toe grip strength." A study of 245 community-dwelling elderly people (average age 75.8 years) found that this strength decreased with age and was particularly low in those over 85. There was a positive correlation between toe grip strength and the time one could stand on one leg (meaning one was higher when the other was higher). There was a negative correlation with the time taken for the TUG test, which looks at walking speed and other factors (meaning one was lower when the other was higher) [4].
The correlation coefficients were 0.44 for one-leg standing and -0.51 for the TUG test. While not perfectly proportional, it can be said that "people with stronger toe strength tend to stand on one leg longer."
However, this was a cross-sectional study, so cause and effect cannot be determined. It is unclear if strong toe strength leads to better balance, or if healthy people simply have strong toes. A 2024 study of young adults concluded that toe flexor muscle strength is related to forward stability, but stability is not determined by toe strength alone [5]. It seems best to consider the toes as one factor in stabilizing the body.
5. Are Human Toes Short Because of Running?
Human toes are relatively short for our body size. There is a hypothesis that this shortness is related to running. Rolian et al. used a mechanical model to estimate what would happen if human toes were made 20% longer [6].
The result was that making the toes 20% longer would double the force and the amount of work done by the toe muscles (flexors) during running. Flexors are the muscles that bend the toes to push against the ground. Calculations show that using longer toes for the same function requires twice the work. On the other hand, during walking, longer toes did not result in a large increase in the burden on the flexors [6].
Reading this, one might think "short toes make running easier." However, this is an estimate from a model. The idea that short toes were selected for endurance running is a hypothesis, not a certain conclusion.
6. Was the Big Toe of Ardipithecus Used for Both Climbing and Walking 4.5 Million Years Ago?
The foot bones of *Ardipithecus ramidus*, found in Gona, Ethiopia, about 4.5 million years ago, have been examined. In this foot, the big toe was separated from the other toes. This shape is suited for gripping branches while climbing trees. Yet, researchers thought it was also used for the push-off phase of walking [7].
Researchers called this a "transitional foot," meaning a foot that could be used for both climbing and walking. It is important to note that we cannot say this creature was "already fully bipedal." The foot is described as incomplete and in the middle of a transition. This foot is interpreted as a form between climbing and walking.
What makes this story interesting is that our small big toe today may be the result of a role that changed over a long period of time.
7. How Can You Try Moving Your Toes Yourself?
Things you can do today: Sit in a chair with bare feet on the floor. First, try to lift only your big toe, then try to lift only the other four toes. Many people find this difficult, which is not strange. Stand up and raise your heels onto your toes. You will feel force at the base of your big toe. Hold onto a wall to prevent falling and do this slowly.
If you want to read more, look up "phalanges" in human anatomy encyclopedias to confirm there are 14 toe bones and that the big toe lacks a middle bone. When looking for resources on walking, terms like "push-off" and "windlass mechanism" are good clues.